İnşaat Mühendisliği

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A 2D oil spill model using radial basis function collocation method
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2011., 2011.) Çarpar, Tunay.; Börekçi, Osman S.
A two dimensional numerical advection diffusion model was developed to simulate an oil spill and to determine the fate and transport of oil on a sea surface. A meshless numerical scheme based on the Radial Basis Function Collocation method (RBFCM) was employed for solving the transport equation in the model. To evaluated the performance of the model, a benchmark problem and an application for the Marmara Sea were investigated. For the benchmark problem, several RBFCM solutions were investigated and compared to the analytical solutions. For the Marmara Sea application, only surface currents were used to drive the oil slick. Surface current profile was generated by interpolation of the data received from Office of Navigation, Hydrography and Oceanography using the Radial Basis Function Collocation method. Physical parameters of oil for diffusion, evaporation, vertical dispersion, shoreline deposition were based on literature values. Sensitivity analysis to key diffusion coefficients were conducted. Three events for each four months (January, April, July and October) were used to test the model. The results are presented in the form of contour maps of oil spills for each event. And the applicability of meshless RBFCM on solving the transport equation for oil spill problems has been shown in accordance with the main objective of this study.
A biosequence based dynamic ride-matching algorithm that takes into account social factors
(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2019., 2019.) Aydın, Ömer Faruk.; Gökaşar, Ilgın.
Increasing traﬃc congestion and advancements in technology have fostered the growth of alternative transportation modes such as dynamic ride-sharing. Smartphone technologies enable dynamic ride-sharing, which aims to establish ride matches between people with similar routes and schedules at short notice. Many automated matching methods are designed to improve system performance, such as minimizing process time, minimizing total system cost or maximizing total distance savings; however, the results may not provide the maximum beneﬁts for the participants. In this dissertation, an attempt is made to develop an algorithm to optimize matches when considering partici pants’ gender, age, employment status and social tendencies. A biosequence algorithm, namely the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm, is used to quantify the similarity of partic ipants’ itineraries. A stated preference survey was conducted among 604 students and members of staﬀ at Turkish-German University in 2018. An extensive simulation study was then performed by utilizing the survey data to compare the performance of the proposed algorithm with that of traditional bipartite and optimization algorithms. The simulation results indicate that when compared to the traditional bipartite and optimization algorithms, the proposed algorithm signiﬁcantly increases performance in terms of computation times and the potential success rate of the matches. A sensitivity analysis for the proposed algorithm is also performed.
A case study for cuts in soft soils
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 1992., 1992.) Köseli, M. Erhan.; Durgunoğlu, H. Turan.
The slope stability problems resulting from soft subsoil conditions on the unbraced excavated cuts are usually observed as rapid and sudden landslides. This is even more evident in the case of inappropriate slope application on this kind of soil conditions. The approaches for the remedial solutions of such problems generally concentrate on the regrading of the inappropriate material and flattening the applied slopes. However, in such cases, it is more important to identify the subsoil conditions properly and to perform the detailed analyses accordingly. In this respect, the landslide which had occurred at TAG motorway during the excavation of cut slopes between Km.141+400 and Km.141 + 700 is investigated as a case study. The required analyses are performed in order to determine the residual strength parameters by both laboratory tests and back calculation method. In the light of these analyses, it is determined that the real cause to slip is the inadequate slope application on the soft soil conditions. During the analyses, it is also observed that there is a logical relationship between soil properties and residual strength parameters which can give profitable data for designers where the remedial solutions are urgent. The residual internal friction angle of slipped soil is obtained as 14 degree.
A comparative study of passive control of structures
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2001., 2001.) Erkal, Aykut.; Tezcan, Semih S.,
Passive energy dissipation systems are described for the control of structures against earthquake vibrations. Classification of passive energy dissipation systems is made and discussion of the behaviour of individual passive devices and systems are provided. Hysteretic systems, viscoelastic systems, re-centering systems, dynamic vibration absorbers and base isolation system components are discussed. In order to investigate the effects of these systems on the response of structures, a typical model building is selected. Passive energy dissipation systems are applied to the model building and the results are then compared. First, in order to meet scientific objectives, a control theoretical four-story frame building was modelled without any passive energy dissipation systems. In a second model, isolators were used at the base level of the building. In a third, viscoelastic dampers are fixed at each storey. In the fourth model isolaters are at the base level together with viscoelastic dampers at each storey. In each scenario calculations have been carried out according to the equivalent seismic load method and linear time history analyses. Linear time history analyses have been carried out by simulating two earthquakes using 0.13sec. and 1.43sec. predominant periods and a 3.96m/sn² maximum acceleration. The different effects of the two periods are also presented. Results of base shears of the models, storey displacements, the bending moments at the top of the columns, and interstorey drift ratios are presented. Conclusions are drawn.
A comparative study of risk assessment between prefabricated and traditional residential construction in Tanzania
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2017., 2017.) Mwamba, Mustapha Kassim Salehe.; Çomu, Semra.
Residential buildings have been the most marketable sector in the construction industry in Tanzania. Considering the elevated risks in the traditional method of construction currently in Tanzania, a modern method of construction is required. In this study, two different methods of construction are analyzed; Prefabricated Construction (PFC) and Traditional Method of Construction (TMC). A comparative risk assessment between PFC and TMC in Tanzania is conducted by using Analytic Hierarchy Process. Moreover, in this study the most important risks are obtained in both construction methods showing how the PFC can have more manageable risks compared to the TMC. The findings resulted to most of the significant risk factors for the PFC’s investment in Tanzania being owner, economic and political related, whereas most of the significant risk factors for the TMC in Tanzania being owner and nature related. The analysis results suggest that in order for efficiently managing the significant risk factors for the PFC, a close relation between the government and the investing companies on the PFC is required. This contribution provides an insight to the construction industry in Tanzania and the investors around the world to consider the deployment of PFC in the residential building market in Tanzania. Furthermore, the management of significant risk factors in other similar East African countries is also discussed.
A comparative study on reinforced concrete lightweight roof decks
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Faculty of Engineering, 1983., 1983.) Gürol, Murat.; Alper, Hüsamettin.
Nine reinforced lightweight one-way slabs were produced with perlite, styropor and pumice lightweight aggregates as structural roof decks with insulating properties. Those plus three identical Ytong aerated slabs were tested as simple beams under short-term loads until failure. For comparison purposes unit weights (800 kg/m3 ) dimensions and reinforcement ot the produced slabs were tried to be kept the same as the Ytong slabs. Also, three cylindrical samples were taken from each slab for uni-axial compression tests. The deflections and mid-span strains were measured for the slabs during the flexural tests. Also, compression and deformation tests were done on the cylinders. According to the test results, all the slabs showed favorable conditions from the points of load-carrying capacities, deflections, initial crack loads and. crack widths with respect to the accepted standards. The slabs made with pumice lightweight aggregate had the highest carrying capacity with the lowest cost of production, therefore being the most economical.
A comparative study on the different rigid pavement design methodologies used for plain and fiber reinforced cement-based materials
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2020., 2020.) Menekşe, Filiz.; Zihnioğlu, Nilüfer Özyurt.
The application of concrete pavements that have been practiced for many years in developed countries is relatively new in Turkey. As well as choosing the most appropriate type of pavement, it is important to determine the optimum pavement thickness for the given traffic level, subgrade condition, and environmental factor to minimize the life cycle cost of the structure and protect the pavements. However, in most methodologies, the lack of consideration of the various main factors (such as vehicle loads, loss of support, thermal gradient, or environmental conditions) that produce stress on the concrete pavement prevents accurate calculation of the required thickness. Contributions of structural fibers to the mechanical and durability properties of concrete have been known for a very long time. However, the number of design methods that cover the use of fiber reinforcement in concrete pavements is very limited and all the methods use different approaches. The main objectives of this study are to compare the differences between the thickness design methodologies of AASHTO (1993), IRC SP 46 (2013), and StreetPave v12 (2014) and to emphasize the lack of the methodologies. The thickness design based on three methodologies was carried out for a sample road using material parameters retrieved from the literature. The contribution of fibers with different types (synthetic, steel and carbon) and amounts (0.2-1.0%) to thickness requirement was evaluated by means of different approaches. To see the effects of the concrete matrix on the effectiveness of fibers two types of concrete (RCC and conventional PCC) were considered. The effects of the presence of edge support and dowel bars on the required thickness were also examined. Finally, Turkey's policy on concrete roads were evaluated briefly. The results of the study showed that usage of the appropriate type and amounts of fibers in the well-designed concrete mixture (whether RCC or PCC for this study) provides to use of lower pavement thickness. Also, using concrete shoulder or dowel bar reduces the required thickness.
A comparison of deep shaft sinking techniques; |a case study using the conventional method
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Sciences and Engineering, 1998., 1998.) Özdemir, Murat.; Özturan, Turan.
Shaft is defined as an undeground cavity of an inclination 45 to 90 degrees to the horizontal line, of a straight course, of a minimum cross section of approximately 10m2, and of an essentially larger length in the vertical than in the horizontal direction. There are many applications of shaft sinking in underground constructions but it has to be recognized that worldwide 90 per cent and more of all shafts are sunk for mining purposes.Most of the shafts required worldwide are constructed by conventional shaft sinking which is understood as breaking rock by blasting, loading and hoisting of the broken rock and installation of the lining. Alternative sinking methods to the conventional method are shaft drilling and boring where in shaft boring muck is removed to a lower level and there should be an existing underground connection, and in shaft drilling with muck removal to the surface or to the next higher level. In this study, all these three sinking methods are examined and compared with each other. Conventional sinking method is examined in detail and a shaft, sunk in Çayeli Rize by a conventional method is taken as a case study. Construction steps are explained and sinking equipment alternatives and progress of the method is discussed.
A comparison of soil modelling using CPT and DMT a case study
(Thesis (M.S.)-Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2009., 2009.) Aykın, Kayhan.; Durgunoğlu, H. Turan.
A site investigation campaign using cone penetration test (CPT) and dilatometer test (DMT) was carried on medium stiff silty clay, occasionally sand and gravelly site located at Gemlik, Bursa within a case study. Seismic tests (SCPT, SDMT) were also carried out in order to obtain shear wave velocity profile for seismic modeling. Data obtain from CPT, SCPT, DMT and SDMT testings used for subsoil geotechnical modeling. Soil classification, undrained shear strength, su, internal friction angle, f, constrained modulus M, and shear wave velocity, Vs, profiles, obtained using different insitu measurement techniques, are compared for whole site models and between closely located investigation pairs. Soil modeling are also supported with SPT data, laboratory tests and muti-array analysis of surface waves tests (MASW-MAM). As a result, comparison of the models and the experience attained during investigations are presented.
A comparison of various procedures on slope stability
(Thesis (M.S.)- Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 1986., 1986.) Çakır, Ali İhsan.; Durgunoğlu, H. Turan.
In this study, the effects of various procedures, Ordinary Method of Slices, Bishop's Modified Method, Spencer's Method, Janbu's Generalized Procedure of Slices and. Wedge Method, on factor of safety for a practical problem taken from Alaybey Shipyard Construction are investigated. Soil profile used in the analyses is a sand fill on a soft clay foundation. General slope stability considerations which are based for stability analyses, the slope stability charts and detailed stability analysis procedures are given in each subsequent section. The computer programs developed for comparing the influences of the methods mentioned above on factor of safety are employed and the charts giving the differences between the factors of safety of various procedures are also developed. Additionally, the effects of these methods on minimum factor of safety are performed. For this purpose, the influences of the shear strengths parameters of the sand fill and the clay foundation on the factor of safety are investigated and the results are also given as the chart. Stability of slopes during earthquakes is given in the last section. A typical soil profile taken from Alaybey Shipyard Construction with the earthquake forces and without considering these forces are analyzed using Wedge Method. For this purpose, a computer program is developed.
A computer program for design of sanitary sewer systems
(Thesis (M.S.)- Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 1982., 1982.) Belkaya, Hüseyin.; Tekeli, Sahim.
A program. is developed for the design of sanitary sewer networks when the sewer lines (links) connecting the manholes (nodes), the nodal elevations, the sewer lengths and a final outlet are specified. The program consists of two algorithms developed for hydraulic design and layout generation. The hydraulic design algorithm is intended for design of networks with specified main or full layouts. The lift stations required may be sited either by the user or may be located automatically by the algorithm at nodes with depths exceeding a specified limit. Even concurrent assignment of both types of lift stations is within the capabilities of the algorithm. The laybut generation algorithm generates a main layout and transfers the data to the hydraulic design algorithm. Unlike model available in the literature, no initial layout is reqtiired for this algorithm. To generate the layout a standard Shortest Path algorithm is used to seek the path with the "shortest length" to the final outlet from every node in the netw6rk. When superposed, these paths generate the routes from all initial manholes to the final outlet. The criteria tested to minimize the total excavation volume, which is found to be the most significant factor determining overall sewen system cost, included: horizontal and surface lengths of sewer links, natural slope and a hypothetical excavation volume (computed by assuming the upper cover depth an;d sewer slope to be minimum) for each sewer line. The relatively high computer storage requirement in generating a layout for large networks is overcomed by subzoning the network and then superposing the layouts generated for each subzone. The layout generation and hydraulic design algorithms are applied together to sewer networks of different sizes, including PINARKENT (a resort town of 13,000), to test the various minimization criteria and hydraulic design parameters. The "hypothetical excavation volume" criterion is found to be quite efficient, especially in view of the fact that true optimality (or minimization) in excavation volume can only be achieved by the simultaneous solution of both the layout and the hydraulic design problems. As such, the program can allow for the easy evaluation of many alternative designs as. well as the effect of various hydraulic design parameters. Hence, the objective of minimizing the dependence on engineering judgement in the overall design process has been achieved to a considerable degree.
A conscientious approach to claims management strategies in international projects using fidic based contracts
(Thesis (M.S.)-Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2007., 2007.) Sevin, Özlem.; Tezcan, Semih S.,
The management of construction claims is the greatest challenge that is facing contractors in today’s competitive business environment. Construction projects are becoming increasingly susceptible to a variety of factors that give rise to time extensions and cost recovery. Although the construction business environment has moved toward partnering arrangements in recent years, the number of contractual difficulties continues to rise. Thus the construction industry needs to develop methodologies for construction claim management to better manage the on going trend. Realizing the importance of this need, this study aims to provide an overview for construction claims management. The thesis opens with a discussion on whether the discords can be solved as potential change orders before escalating into major problems and becoming claims. Then, accepting the fact that changes take place in every project, in order to understand the nature of claims before dealing with them, the clauses that trigger claims in FIDIC’s Fourth Edition (or General Conditions of Contract for Civil Engineering Works) are investigated. Ten major clauses are chosen to consider the more significant problems experienced by contractors. Different views are presented in order to give the reader an essence of what the basis of the claim for the chosen clause is. The validity of these commentaries is then tested using real time case studies. The last section of the study provides the fundamentals for claims management. The records to be kept at different stages of the project are described and the important points to be considered during the preparation of a well documented claim are provided.
A critical survey of the existing methods of slope stability analysis
(Thesis (M.S.)- Robert College. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 1964., 1964.) Özerdem, Esin.; Kumbasar, Vahit.
A design of a roof 120 ft. in diameter covered by steel trusses forming a grid and its comparason with ashell in terms of cost
(Thesis (M.S.) - Robert College. Faculty of Graduate School of Engineering, 1965., 1965.) Balaman, Nurettin.; Kocataşkın, Ferruh.
A method of evaluation of relationship between the safety management and overall safety performance in construction industry
(Thesis (Ph.D.)-Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2010., 2010.) Metinsoy, Tamer.; Aşkar Altay, Gülay.; Say, Arzu İşeri.
Safety is crucial in construction industry. From beginning to end, the construction process is complex and characterized by a number of uncertainties and a high fatality rate. But despite its high fatality rate constructions can be a safe occupation when there is an effective safety management and workers and employers are aware of hazards and prevent the probable risks. In this context, the objective of this study is to propose a new methodology that determines the overall safety performance of the construction site by including safety management performance and on-site safety performance assessment to improve construction safety. The study is particularly based on getting data from the construction sites via developed questionnaire and checklist and creating software called SME (safety management Evaluator) working on the basis of fuzzy logic approach that has the capability to evaluate construction contractors’ safety management performance and onsite safety performance and notify the safety management deficiencies. The survey data were collected from a sample size of 30 on-going building type construction firms and the responders of the questionnaire were safety managers. Checklist was applied on-site by author in order to observe the real situation of safety. The study includes factor analysis and correlation of safety management components and descriptive statistics in order to uncover the correlation patterns among the different variables. The purpose of this evaluation is to establish a base point against which construction contractors can be classified by an index of safety developed for the Turkish construction sector. By developing an index of safety, which includes safety management and on- site performance “defectiveness of the safety management and the overall safety performance of a specific construction company regarding the safety index scale for Turkey” is determined.
A model study of pile groups in clay
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 1986., 1986.) Budak, Faruk.; Güler, Erol.
A model scale study of the bearing capacity of single piles and pile groups with a small L/D ratio in clay under vertical and axial loads has been performed. It was investigated how the pile spacing, driving energy, number of piles and time factor effects the bearing capacity of pile groups. Experimental results have been compared with the theoretical values. In this study for the interpretation of test results, a statistical analysis method called Latin Square was used.
A model to evaluate the effectiveness of virtual construction safety training tool
(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2019., 2019.) Kıral, Işık Ateş.; Çomu, Semra.
Construction projects have become more complex. Due to this complexity, construction projects are exposed to more risks and the probability of occupational accidents on the site increases. So, the provision of safety on the construction eld becomes more challenging, and the number of occupational accidents and fatalities remains high all around the world. The literature highlight that human-related factors play a crucial role in the safety management process, so, improving behavior-based skills of workers by adequate safety training method has become important to provide on-site safety. Previous literature states that an e ective safety training method should cover (i) information transfer, (ii) instructional feedback, (iii) knowledge development, (iv) hands-on practice, (v) behavioral modeling and (vi) hazard identi cation. Due to the low level of engagement, conventional safety training methods fail to provide an e ective safety training. In order to bridge this gap, a high level of engagement between the safety training method and the participant should be provided. In this regard, the main aim of this study is to quantitatively analyze the e ectiveness of virtual construction safety training tool entitled Virtual Safety Analysis For Engineering applications (V-SAFE). During evaluation, eye tracking technologies have been also used to test the attention level and safety awareness of participants. Analysis results show that V-SAFE provides all the essential features of e ective safety training. The present study makes a signi cant contribution to the eld of safety training, since it is the rst and only study that evaluates all safety training parameters rather than focusing on a single parameter. It has also developed a conceptual model that examines the e ectiveness of virtual safety training methods. This model o ers great insights for future studies on how to measure the e ectiveness of safety training.
A new submarket approach using distances to transit lines for the prediction of real estate prices
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2019., 2019.) Tan, Muhittin.; Gökaşar, Ilgın.
Prediction of a price of a real estate has been one of the trend topics in recent years. There are many studies conducted on both prediction of a value of a real estate or the a ecting parameters. In this study, the prediction of a real estate price using submarket near transit lines is studied on two neighbor counties in Istanbul, Beylikduzu and Esenyurt. So, the data should be analyzed into parts to investigate altered dynamics of different districts, which is also called submartket analysis. After the whole data of real estates in these counties are collected and analyzed, the data are divided into three parts (Esenyurt, Beylikduzu and transition zone) and analyzed in order to investigate altered dynamics of different districts. A total of 3487 real estate data with one dependent variable and 13 independent variables collected from aforementioned districts are analyzed with two machine learning (Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and Spatial Auto Regression (SAR) and one deep learning tool (MultiLayer Perceptron (MLP)). According to the results of the both whole data and submarket analysis, Spatial Auto Regressive model is superior to the others in a metric of R-squared. Moreover, with the submarket analysis, prediction power of all the algorithms (MLR, SAR, and MLP) are signi cantly increased. Significant independent variables of each model differ from each other so that it can be concluded that submarket analysis in real estate prediction is improving the prediction models and showing different dynamics of each specific district of a county.
A new test device and method: |geotextile-soil interface cylindrical test (GICT)
(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 1997., 1997.) Akkol, Orkun Z.; Baykal, Gökhan.
The use of geosynthetics in civil engineering has covered a wide range, as they are effective in solving geotechnical problems. There has been a significant increase in the research for determination of interface friction properties of soil to geosynthetic or geosynthetic to geosynthetic interaction in geotechnical engineering. For the time being, a number of test devices and methods are utilized to determine the soil-geotextile shear strength parameters by the researchers. All these interface test devices had their own advantages and disadvantages associated with the type of the device. A new interface testing device, Geotextile-soil Interface Cylindrical Test (GICT) is developed in this study. The GICT is used to perfonn interface tests between soil and geotextile. The geotextile is glued around a cylindrical block and rotated in a soil sample where the normal load is applied radially. It has many advantages over the existing interface test devices. Unlike of the other interface devices, unlimited and continuous displacement and constant shear area are achieved during the tests. Machine friction, load eccentricity and boundary effect on the sheared sample are minimized in the GICT. It has a simple loading system and suitable for cyclic loading. The GICT is useful to detennine the interface shear parameters by testing the samples in the fixed shear or partially fixed shear testing modes. By a simple modification on the device geosynthetic to geosynthetic or geogrid interface tests and pullout tests can be perfonned. Also, the advantage of possibility to change the dimensions of shear samples enables the researcher to test various sjze samples in just one device. Fixed shear interface tests were performed in the Geotextile-soil Interface Cylindrical Test device and in a conventional 10 by 10 direct shear box. Two types of sands at very loose and dense states were tested in four types of geotextile interfaces. The tested geotextiles have different engineering properties, such as, polymer type, manufacturing method, tensile strength, compressibility and thickness. The results obtained from the GICT were compared to those obtained from the fixed shear tests in the direct shear box. The GICT gave reproducible and comparable results.
A recent challenge in structural steel design: progressive collapse
(Thesis (M.S.) - Bogazici University. Institute for Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, 2013., 2013.) Ergüçlü, Erdem.; Aşkar Altay, Gülay.
Progressive collapse is a structural design challenge which was discovered 45 years ago but gained awareness in recent years. It is defined by ASCE 7-05 as the spread of an initial local failure from element to element resulting, eventually, in the collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionate large part of it. In this study two case studies have been considered in order to illustrate progressive collapse analysis of steel braced frames. Relevant design codes from USA, Canada and Europe; and also recent papers have been reviewed in order to provide a broad literature that enhances intelligibility of the case studies. In the first case study, progressive collapse potential of two ten-story prototype steel braced frames have been investigated. These were a Special Concentrically Braced Frame (SCBF) and an Eccentrically Braced Frame (EBF) designed previously for different seismic design categories. Alternate Path Method (APM) introduced by recent progressive collapse specific design codes like UFC 4-023-03 have been utilized. Accordingly, nonlinear dynamic time history analysis have been carried out after removing critical column and associated braces from models at different story levels. Here, element removals simulated initial local failure due to an abnormal event. Analysis results revealed that SCBF has progressive collapse potential at the last two stories whereas EBF has collapse potential at the first three stories. The results of nonlinear dynamic analysis were used in the second case study to investigate the accuracy of Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) calculated per UFC. This factor is used to represent dynamic nature of progressive collapse in APM with Nonlinear Static Analysis (NSA). The use of the equation suggested by UFC for NSA of braced frames needs further investigation since for some removal cases it has underestimated the DIF.

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