Ph.D. Theses
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Item Armenian schools in contemporary Turkey : governmentality, community, resilience(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Delihüseyinoğlu, Hülya.; Türem, Ziya Umut.In the grip of central examination systems, the marketization and privatization of schooling, regulations of a nation state which maintains its emphasis on itsTurko-Islamictenets, and the escalation of competition among students as an outcome of an endeavor to be incorporated into global job markets, the Armenian schools struggle to breed a nurturing soil forArmenian cultural sustainability.The main objective of this research is to analyze to what extent the Armenian schools serve as places of cultural empowermentin spite of the external constraints that the educational system in Turkey breeds and the political targeting Armenian community experiences today. Although the schools are places of acculturation in which the wishes of the nation state almost always prevail, this does not mean that latitude in education is fully encompassed by precepts of national education. There is a possibility for the schools to function as spaces for cultural self-realization as opposed to the political targeting and marginalization they are subjected to. The aim of this study is to unpack the broader educational field encapsulating the Armenian schools, and to paint a comprehensive picture which summarizes bureaucratic functioning, quotidian practices, daily predicaments, the network of relationships inte woven around the schools or any pattern that delineate their overall milieu, so that it could be possible to understand how self-meaning is produced in the schools.Item Historical evolution of scientific knowledge in Turkey : the discipline of economics from the 1930s to the 1960s(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Gelmedi, Şebnem.; Türem, Ziya Umut.; Toprak Zafer.This dissertation analyzes the historical evolution of the economics discipline through the publications of Istanbul University Faculty of Economics and Ankara University Faculty of Political Sciences in between the 1930s and the 1960s. This period, from the foundation of the Faculty of Economics till the new mainstream was established by the neoclassical synthesis, represents a blurred era during when the discipline of economics was shaped by various social and political factors both locally and internationally. In formation of the teaching of economics and economic thought at the university level, this study concentrates on the roles of academic economists who appeared as the main actors in the translation process of the current economic theories and the precepts of various schools of thought into local. Based on a detailed textual analysis on the university publications, this study examines in what ways and to what degree this translation was materialized in the local context, as well as how the economic knowledge, the scope and the components of the discipline of economics were conceptualized by academic economists in the zeitgeist. This dissertation argues that this reception/translation process that shaped the evolution of economics at the educational field went beyond an effort of imitating the experience of developed countries, but shaped by the utilization of eclectic methods within the context of local peculiarities, which reflects the influence of the value-added by academic economists.Item Conservative transformation of education in Turkey (1980-2012) : policy processes and power alliances(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Canlı, Gamze.; Türem, Ziya Umut.This research explores the role of several civil conservative- Islamist organizations and their relational networks in the conservative transformation of educational policy in Turkey between 1980 and 2012. It examines how the pow-er bloc of the conservative Islamist organizations over the educational policy has been historically and relationally constituted and shaped. It analyzes the modalities and motivations that bring these constellations together, the shaping of their hegemony projects and their power building strategies, and the relational and historical dynamics that empower them to orient educational policy field. The research focuses on four major periods of educational policy between the years 1980 and 2012: The ideological designation of the education system with the Turkish-Islamic Synthesis in the 1980s, the process of the eight years of compulsory education reform during the 1990s, the neoliberal-populist regime of educational policies during the 2000s, the implementation of the 4+4+4 compulsory education model in 2012. Semi-structured inter-views and textual analysis are utilized as qualitative research methods. The research argues that conservative transformation of educational policy is not a monolithic and linear process defined with the steadily rising influence and power of the conservative- Islamist actors. Conservatism in edu-cation has rather been a product of the changing modalities and dynamics of alliance building among diverse agents, within which the currently powerful conservative-Islamist groups develop different power building strategies. The research claims that the main power resource of these groups is their interorganizational networks and expanding social capital across civil and political platforms. The proactivity for the advocacy for religious education, on the other hand, functions to forge a common ground that unities them as a conservative-Islamist power bloc.Item Family and gender in Millennials' novels in Turkey : 2006 - 2020(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Tayşir, Eyüp Aygün, 1979-; Yazıcı, Berna.This new historicist analysis aims to analyze the mutual interactions between family and gender-related themes of Turkish millennials' novels and the family and gender politics of the 2000s and 2010s, in which millennials' novels were written. In this context, 26 millennials' novels were analyzed and interpreted through a critical reading. Findings suggested that millennials' novels contradict the traditional, patriarchal, and conservative family norms that have been supported and encouraged by the governments in Turkey in the last two decades. Millennials' novels are card-carrying antifamily novels. However, they do not show a similar pattern in terms of gender. In other words, millennials' novels are in concert with the sexist, misogynist, and anti-woman discourse that dominated the epoch in which millennials' novels were written. The main reason for this situation is that millennials' novels are fictional texts that want to put right or radically change Turkish society and Turkey by creating vigilantes. A family and its responsibilities are obstacles for a vigilante character. On the other hand, vigilantes believe they could find the power they need to achieve their almost impossible goals in patriarchy, masculinity, and toxic masculinity. Therefore, millennials' novels have reproduced the sexist politics that dominated the epoch in which they were written.Item Taming demography actors, dynamics, and events in the transition in population policies of Turkey from pronatalism to antinatalism between 1950 and 1965(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Furtuna, Serdar.; Altuğ, Seda.; Destremau, Blandine.This dissertation analyzes the transition of Third World countries' population policies from pronatalism to antinatalism in the 1950s and 1960s, with a special focus on the Turkish case. The emergence of the idea of population control as part of global hegemonic interest, its dissemination and adaptation by the national government, and its internalization by women and the family are explored through three spheres: global, national, and individual. The aim of this dissertation, therefore, is to explore the key motivations, articulations, and reinforcements of the global, national, and individual forces that intervene in antinatalist politics, and to highlight the contradictions, resistances, and negotiations in between. The claim of this dissertation, based on a detailed analysis of primary and secondary sources, is that population control was not a unilateral hegemonic project, but an implicit and fragile intersection of these three spheres, whose only interest was to improve their "quality" by maximizing their own capabilities and functionings. In this sense, this dissertation is the story of the ideology of population control that became an instrument for improving the quality of life in the 1950s and 1960s.Item Market reconstruction in Turkey : from sugar market to sugar beet farming(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Dodurka, Berra Zeynep.; Türem, Ziya Umut.This dissertation investigates the reconstruction of the Turkish sugar market within the context of neoliberal globalization. It adopts a socially and politically constructed view of neoliberalization and analyzes the reconstruction process and emerging market dynamics at both national and local levels. First, the study examines the trajectory of sugar production, tracing its shift from a state monopoly to market liberalization after the 1980s. The historical functions and uses of sugar production, and also beet production providing farmers with a reliable source of income made the market reconstruction a process harboring conflicting logics, interests, and actors. Second, through field research conducted in Konya, the study analyzes the consequences of market reconstruction on beet farming in the local context, highlighting the transformation of agrarian Turkey. Production quotas, adopted as the main tools for reorganizing production had tremendous effects in the local context. Within a context of increasing financialization of agriculture, beet becomes essential due to the networks and opportunities it provides, allowing farmers to sustain their livelihoods despite their disadvantaged market position. However, during its trajectory, beet also transformed from a primary income-generating crop to a commodity produced not for its profit but for secondary benefits. Overall, this research sheds light on the reconstruction of the Turkish sugar market, offering insights into the complex dynamics of neoliberal globalization and the role of sugar beet in farmers' livelihood strategies.Item A tale of coexistence : a history of Cyprus from 1860 to 1931(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2022) Çetiner, Nur.; Kırlı, Cengiz.This dissertation examines the inter-communal relationships between Orthodox Christian Greek Cypriots and Muslim Turkish Cypriots from 1860 to 1931. The study aims to shed light on a history of coexistence on the island of Cy prus. The main goal of this dissertation is to present an inclusive bi-communal narrative and to ask new questions about the national identity construction processes of the two communities living together. The chronological timeline of the thesis is started with the Ottoman inspection on the island in =>?@ and is completed with the rebellion in =AB=. The study intends to start from =>?@, in other words, before the administration of the island was passed to the Brit ish, and end with the =AB= rebellion because it was necessary to take a date after =AIB in order to see the effects of the establishment of the new Turkish Republic of Turkey and its aftermath on Cyprus. Further, it examines the iden tity formation processes of Cypriots using "ambivalence" while constructing a common historical narrative by examining the daily lives of Cypriots and their inter-communal relationships. Based on Ottoman and British sources, this study explores the socio-political life of Orthodox Christian Greek Cyp riots and Muslim Turkish Cypriots during the late Ottoman period and under British colonial rule.Item A history of survival : the Turkish-Muslim minority in rural western thrace(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Chousein Hasan, Şule.; Kırlı, Cengiz.This study explores the survival strategies of the Turkish Muslim minority rurals in Greece from the Balkan Wars (1913) until to day. It scrutinizes how the minority has survived squeezed in be tween Greece and Turkey in the historical course of the cheq uered bilateral relations. Focusing on the rural community in different geographies (highland, middle-line and lowland vil lages) of Greek Thrace, it elucidates how the rurals devised their strategies of survival in certain historical ruptures by focusing on their narrations about how they remember the past and how their past experiences influenced their survival strategies. Social hierarchies within the rural community, intercommunal rela tions with the local Greek Orthodox, interactions between the minority institutions and the elite, and their historical bonds with Turkey are explored to find out their impact on the rurals’ survival strategies and the social changes and continuities within the rural community.Item One hundred years of development in Turkey with intangible capital(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Onanç, Hüsamettin.; Türem, Ziya Umut.; Pamuk, Şevket, 1950- .This thesis studies the role of intangible capital in the development of Turkey during the last century. Intangible capital is the accumulation of human and institutional capital. It is a new terminology in economics introduced by the World Bank for the research on sustainability to understand country- specific structural problems. The thesis argues that economic output is highly correlated with the historical accumulation of intangible factors. Moreover, stock of tangible physical capital develops with the mutual interaction of intangible capital, thus intangible capital is the root cause of development. The introduction of the concept of “brand value of a country” corresponding to the intangible capital uses the analogy in microeconomics and opens a new understanding for the wealth of a nation. The empirical historical research in this respect highlights that with the enthusiasm of the founding fathers the brand value of Turkey grew fastest after 1930s until mid-century. Moreover, the accumulated intangible capital supported the transition from rural to urban society. However, the study features that the growth of intangible capital suffered several severe setbacks every decade since 1960 and Turkey did not establish a sustainable institutional environment, nor a consistent human capital development program since mid of last century. The analysis based on the latest trend of all intangible factors, including the trend of human development and rule of law indicators, consequently the intangible capital concludes that the current development level of Turkey cannot be sustained unless the existing structure is reformed radically.Item Murder in the family : law, order, and criminal justice in the nineteenth century Ottoman society(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2023., 2023) Şamlıoğlu-Berk, Zehra.; Kırlı, Cengiz.This study deals with the murders committed within the family in the Ottoman provinces in the second half of the nineteenth century. Based on Ottoman archive documents, it focuses on the conflicts of various family members with each other and various reckonings both within the nuclear and extended family, from a socio-legal point of view and without any regional restrictions. The study claims that the ties that held the family together were extremely sensitive and fragile and that the family had both compassion and brutality in itself, with various paradoxes. The fact that we were able to obtain detailed information about the Ottoman provincial family and the word-for-word statements of family members from their mouths was a result of the judicial reforms that took place in the second half of the nineteenth century. Since this study, which presents a multi-layered portrait of the Ottoman provincial family through the nizamiye court records, is shaped on various family anomalies, the portrait presented is far from the claim of a full-scale family portrait. This study also tries to understand and make sense of ordinary people's mentality regarding their roles in both the domestic and public spheres. The way ordinary people customize the events in their minds, and the sub-judicial solutions they develop constitute the main axis of this study. Finally, this study reveals how the two courts operate in murder cases that fall into the common domain of both sharia and nizamiye courts in the new judicial order.Item The making of a makbul father : a socio-political exploration of heteronormative fatherhood in Turkey(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Yıldırım, Mürüvet Esra.; Yazıcı, Berna.This dissertation critically analyzes the notion of heteronormative father-hood within the context of nationalism. Drawing upon thirty-six formal, semi-structured, and tape- recorded interviews with lower-middle class men who identify themselves as Turkish-Sunni-Muslim and have children be-tween the ages of eighteen to forty, in six cities in the Marmara, Central Anatolia and the Black Sea Regions, it examines the relationship between makbul citizenship and the construction and experiences of heteronormative fatherhood. For the interviewees, the social meaning of fatherhood goes beyond having children. It is the ability to shoulder financial responsibilities and differentiate makbul from non-makbul on behalf of their dependents, namely, their spouses, siblings, and children. Men ground their fatherly authority over their dependents on some of their qualities, such as being nationalistic and religious, that enable them to be included in formal and informal networks of solidarity. However, the difficulties they endured as a child motivated them to prevent their children from being socially and economically vulnerable in life as they were. Thus, they have created an environment for their children to dare to be demanding from their family in many senses. They invented new mild methods to sustain fatherly authority. But they also complain about being unappreciated. In this sense, they are fathers in-between.Item The transformations of the regime of intimate violence in Turkey(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Kosukoğlu, Nazife.; Türem, Ziya Umut.When and how do regimes of intimate violence change? What lies behind the changes in legal norms and rules concerning the regulation of male violence? How do legislators, jurists, and scholars affect the flows of law with regards to the gendered hierarchies of power? These questions lie at the crux of this study which examines the transformations of the regime of intimate violence in Turkey throughout the long twentieth cen tury. Analyzing the decisions of the Court of Cassation, scholarly, and par liamentary debates and legislation, this study traces the links between masculine power and state power in Turkey and presents an alternative account of modern Turkish history, revealing the extent to which state institutions have contributed to the reproduction of gendered hierar chies of power and marginalization of gendered bodily harms. This study shows that this regime of intimate violence went through various changes since the late Ottoman era and that its history followed a fluctu ating course that included major masculinist restoration periods. In my analysis of these changes, I argue that major shocks that led to changes in the structure of the judico-political field or in the stance and standing of actors populating this field were crucial for the changes in rules and norms about intimate violence. This study also highlights the power of legal interpretation in leading to major changes in ground rules concern ing masculine domination and underlines the importance of global legal flows in shaping such changes. It also challenges the argument that fem inist activism is the more or less straightforward determinant of progres sive changes in policies and legal rules concerning gender violence and shows that -because of the intervening and constraining roles of institu tions and male state elites in these institutions- such regimes may be come even more tolerant of intimate violence in periods marked by the rise of mass and autonomous feminist movements.Item Conservative women in contemporary Turkish politics : mobilization, party politics and voting(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Kourou, Nur Sinem.; Karaömerlioğlu, M. Asım.This dissertation examines women's political participation process (a.k.a political feminization) in the case of Turkey's AKP. Therefore, it is built on a puzzle between the number of women in the party and the party's gender agenda. It focuses on the political participation process of women through qualitative research on the party's women's branches and party's women voters. By analyzing the relationship, the party's anti-feminist agenda deliberately specifies the limits of women's political involvement bolstering it with the party's Islamist-conservative ideology. Afterwards, without challenging the strict bounds of the party, women activists (actors in the party's women branches) rigorously navigate their political survival by polishing their mobilization abilities. The research findings suggest that AKP reaches out women without pledging to gender equality or feminist emancipation while rhetorically encouraging their participation into politics both as activist and voter. In return, women form their political style considering the limits and pushing the presumable opportunities, which stem from the the limits. Moreover, women voters raise their political agency by routinizing the voting behavior and identifying themselves as the AKP's supporters.Item Metropolitics : the political economy of Istanbul’s rail infrastructure(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Kanzık, Alp.; Yazıcı, Berna.This dissertation narrates the historical trajectory of Istanbul’s urban rail infrastructure to trace the transformation of state-business relations and urban politics under late Turkish capitalism. Urban rail transit infrastructure, de spite being an aspiring political vision throughout late Ottoman and Repub lican history, would only be realized after the introduction of neoliberal re forms and a novel legal-institutional environment following the 1980 coup d’état. However, this vision would be partially realized throughout the first two decades of Turkish neoliberalism. Only after the financial and political opportunities and reconfigurations during the AKP era and following the 2008- 2009 crisis, a pervasive infrastructural transformation would take hold. This dissertation, building upon mainly media archives, legal documents, ur ban plans, infrastructure contracts, market research databases and interviews, is preoccupied with the political purposes and meanings that urban rail infra structure was imbued with throughout the four decades of Turkish neoliber alism. The dissertation, with a sensitivity towards continuities and ruptures between each political era, posits that that the historical and contemporary significance of urban rail projects within late Turkish politics lies in its con troversial utilization in the service of patronal ties and its endowment with an ambivalent urban vision, torn between urban populism and global city aspi rations. The dissertation concludes that this neoliberal transformation of ur ban rail infrastructure, rather than being decisively marked by coherence, turns out to be ridden with contradictions, shortcomings and political ten sions, which helps one to posit a “revisionist” take on the academic threads of neoliberalism and economic reforms.Item Educating citizens for “Sexual Manners” : politics of sexuality between 1945-1965 in Turkey(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Yurttagüler, Laden.; Özbek, Nadir.This study aims to examine the discourse on "sexual manners" that has become visible in the public sphere in Turkey between 1945 and 1965, a period marked by political, economic, and social changes. On the one hand, "sexual manners" turned into a constructive and regulative discourse for concepts such as femininity, masculinity, marriage, family, reproduction, and birth control, based on the legitimacy of "scientification," when the sexuality of the citizens was considered invisible and muted in the public sphere. The sexual manners discourse, produced by the authors gathered around Seksoloji magazine and similar publishing houses, developed discussions in line with the global literature for the well-being of the individual and collective body. On the other hand, sexual manners contributed to the circulation of new norms for “desired” citizenship by aiming to regulate intimate relations between individuals. This dissertation aims to discuss the transformation regarding the "appropriate sexuality" of the period by focusing on the tensions between discourse and practice through subjects such as virginity, sexual pleasure, divorce, and extramarital affairs.Item Poor enlighteners : pedagogy, politics, and elementary school teachers in the early republican era(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Ertürk Asar, Esin.; Türem, Ziya Umut.; Toprak, Zafer.This study examines the relationships between elementary school teachers and the early republican regime in Turkey between 1923 and 1940. Unlike the educational history literature in which the teachers are figures in the shadows, this study seeks to answer the question of how elemen tary school teachers made sense of the partnership between the teachers and the new regime and how they appropriated and recreated the repub lican ideology in their local contexts. In this study, the relationship between elementary school teachers and the republican regime is examined on three levels. First, the economic and institutional aspects of the relationship between the teachers and the republican regime are investigated. Second, the pedagogy of the early re publican period and the transformations in pedagogical literature are ex plored as factors that shaped the relationship between teachers and the republican regime. Finally, the concrete manifestations of this relation ship, as recalled by the teachers themselves, are examined. This study demonstrates that the state did not present a homogeneous unity in the field of education during the early republican era, and that the relationship between the teachers and the regime was more compli cated than the teachers' being merely obedient servants of a unified rul ing cadre. They were social and political actors who adopted the regime's principles and educational policies in their local contexts, and their rela tionship with the new regime was characterized not only by compro mises but also by conflicts and tensions.Item Representation of Beyoğlu in short story writing of the 1940s generation in Turkey(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2022., 2022) Çankaya, Ercan.; Babuna, Aydın, 1959- .This study focuses on the representation of Beyoğlu in short stories written between the end of the 1930s and the beginning of the 1950s by nine authors who were accepted as the representatives of the 1940s generation. Two developments marked the political history of this long decade: The Second World War and discussions about the transition to multi-party life. In these years, a radical change concurrently occurred in the positions of intellectuals in society and at the state level. The lit erary intellectual, who was a part of the bureaucracy in the early Repub lican period, became both excluded from the state elite and impover ished. In literature, as the little man became a common theme, the figure of the narrator who lived among the little men and narrated them rose to prominence. As story writing was poised for a rapid rise in the 50s during this period, literary modernism also became a major trend. The story writer began to focus more on his own individuality as the “loitering little man.” The study reveals the relationship between the rise of literary modernism in Turkish short story writing and the increase of Beyoğlu representations in number and content. How the representations of Beyoğlu shaped the modernism of the 1940s and how the rise of modernism affected the literary representation of Beyoğlu are dis cussed.Item Making sense of mafia in Turkey: conceptual framework and a preliminary evaluation(Thesis (Ph.D.)-Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2005., 2005.) HatipKarasulu, Hatice Ahu.; Buğra, Ayşe,The aim of this dissertation is to make sense of mafia and make sense of mafia in Turkey. The discussions are limited to racketeering. That is, smuggling is not included. The arguments are developed on a conceptual level and reflected to Turkey. As a specific concept in criminology, mafia or organized crime points at an organization accruing illegal gains through a multiplicity of crimes, using threat or violence. Departing from the criticisms of this conceptualization, in this dissertation, it is argued that white-collar or corporate crime should not be taken as distinct, and the slim line of intersection betweenpolitical economy and criminology should not bedisregarded. That is, committing a profit-oriented crime, mafia is not independent of the 'place of economy in society' and the state-business relations shaped therein. This is especially important in the context of neoliberal economic transformation, within which mafia, as a metaphor of reciprocity relations aiming at illicit gain on the borders of the legal economy, stigmatized by the economic transformation process itself, unless the rise of the market economy is restrained with a redistributive state and rule of law. With respect to Turkey, first, the rare lines of knowledge on mafia are discussed. By and large, the works of legal scholars and criminologists are in line with the orthodox definition, and share the same shortcomings. The mafia metaphor is introduced with outlining the neoliberal economic transformation in the post-1980 period, and exemplified with the transformation of the "kabadayı", so-called "Civangate" and Turkbank privatization.Item Mine workers, the state and war: The Ereğli-Zonguldak coal basın as the site of contest, 1920-1947(Thesis (Ph.D.)-Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2005., 2005.) Gürboğa, Nurşen, 1971-; Toprak, Zafer.This study investigates the complex relations between the people of the Eregli- Zonguldak basin, who supplied the underground workforce of the coalmines, the mining companies and the state in the early Republican era, and the tough relations between the basin's people and the state brought by the compulsory paid labor regime during the Second World War period. The study aims to reveal the conditions of the mineworkers following flexible work pattern between mining and subsistence-agriculture, their identities, patterns of solidarity and of struggle. During the period, the labor relations in the basin were shaped by the low-wage policy and labor-intensive production choices of the companies, fluctuations in demand for coal, the state's nationalization policy of the capital and protectionist-etatist industrialization projects, the repressive labor policies of the single-party era, the means of extra-economic coercion and the workers' struggles. The identity of the workers, their relations to the other actors, their patterns of solidarity and of struggle came into being on a junction formed by the articulation of the mining to the village community. During the 1940s, the forced labor regime made the relations between the state and the people of the basin tense. Instead of submitting, the basin's people developed a wide resistance repertoire. In the post-war era, the state guaranteed labor supply through reconstituting previous work pattern and offering social services to the mineworkers. Hence, the whole basin with its villages became a "company-village" under the control of the state. Contrary to the arguments which define the underground workers as belonging to primarily a peasant universe and to pre-capitalist social relations, this study defines them as a modern form of labor compatible to the capitalist production relations in the mines. The Zonguldak mineworkers with their cheap and unskilled labor constituted the lowest stratum of the regionally-segmented labor market, who at the same time shouldered the reproduction cost of labor force through subsistence-agriculture.Item Ottoman intelligence :|the second branch and its operational characteristics, 1914-1918(Thesis (Ph.D.) - Bogazici University. Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History, 2021., 2021.) Şimşeker, Somer Alp.; Kırlı, Cengiz.This study is about the Second Branch of the Ottoman Empire’s General Staff, which was originally established as a military intelligence institu tion and represented centralization tendency during the First World War. With the defeat in the Balkan Wars, the 1913 coup and the Martial Law administration along with the mobilization for the First World War, the Ministry of Defense became an important decision-making authority in the Ottoman Empire. These conditions contributed to the transfor mation of the Second Branch into a centralized structure in intelligence. With the Martial Law administration, the Second Branch carried out the duties of propaganda, censorship, domestic and foreign intelligence. Other intelligence institutions and their sources were canalized to the Second Branch, and all activities against espionage in the Empire was prohibited without its consent and the order. The control over propa ganda and censorship activities were given to the Second Branch. Prop aganda activities became a mortar of modern Turkey’s ideological infra structure. Second Branch gathered military, political and partly economic intelligence for foreign intelligence at the strategic, opera tional and tactical levels. The centralization tendency was assessed along with the administrative and organizational structure of the Sec ond Branch. This study contributes to the intelligence studies by pre senting a centralizing intelligence institution while many other states established separate institutions or new units regarding domestic and foreign intelligence during total war conditions.